Table 3 Regimens for intrathecal opioids reported in the literature
First author Journal Year Type of study Total sample size | Timing of administration | Solution | Site | Needle |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Goodarzi [45] Paediatr Anaesth 1998 RCT 80 | After tracheal intubation | 2 μg/kg morphine mixed with 50 μg of sufentanil and 2 ml of preservative-free saline | At the level of L3–4 | A 24-gauge spinal needle |
Gall [46] Anesthesiology 2001 RCT 30 | After tracheal intubation | 4-ml solution containing 2 μg/kg preservative-free morphine, 5 μg/kg preservative-free morphine, or normal saline | No description | A 25-gauge pencil-point spinal needle |
Eschertzhuberl [47] Br J Anaesth 2008 RCT 42 | After tracheal intubation | A mixture of 1 μg/kg sufentanil and 5 or 15 μg/kg morphine diluted with normal saline to a total volume of 3 ml | At the level of L3–4 or L4–5 | A 25-gauge pencil-point spinal needle |
Tripi [48] Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2008 Retrospective 407 | After induction of general anesthesia and before surgical incision | No dose, moderate dose; morphine 9–19 μg/kg or high dose ≥ 20 μg/kg | No description | No description |
Son-Hing [49] J Pediatr Orthop 2011 Retrospective 287 | After induction of general anesthesia and before surgical incision | Morphine 9–19 μg/kg | No description | No description |
Hong [50] Paediatr Anaesth 2017 Retrospective 40 | Immediately after induction of anesthesia and prior to incision | Morphine 12 μg/kg | No description | No description |
Cohen [51] Anesth Analg 2017 RCT 71 | After placement of an endotracheal tube | Preservative-free morphine at a concentration of 7.5 μg/kg | Between levels L2 and L5 | A 24-gauge spinal needle |